(Excerpt)

 

The Big Bang & The Expanding Universe 

 

The Hubble Law, also called the Hubble equation describes the relation of the velocity and the distance from the observer of each of many galaxies observed over a wide range by Edwin Hubble,  Vesto Slipher, Milton Humason and their associates and successors, and it is the velocity =H  x  distances or, if v=velocity and s=distances, namely  v=Hs  in which  H is the Hubble Constant is a constant of proportionality.

For each galaxy, the velocity v is calculated from red shift, spectographic observations and from the Doppler effect. The distances from the observer was determined from the absolute brightness, from the period called Cepheid variables, the Cepheid variable stars were the key instrument in Edwin Hubble’s 1923 conclusion that M31 (Andromeda) was an external galaxy as opposed to a smaller nebula within the Milky Way, from the apparent brightness measurements, and from the Inverse Square Law relating those measurements to distances.

As can be seen from this equation, H has the dimension of time with the H^- (with the minus superscript)  and is based on many observations of many galaxes over a wide range of distances and corresponding velocities.

The value of H^- is determined as being between the limits of 15 kilometers per second per million light years, and 30 kilometers per second per million light years, or the equivalent limits of 50 kilometers per second per megaparsec and 10 kilometers per megaparsec.

Why Do We Help Others?

Many believe and claim that everything we do, no matter how noble and beneficial to others, is really directed towards the ultimate of self-aggrandizement and self benefit. Is this true?  Do we only help others to help ourselves in some way?

Philanthropy and altruism are indispensable to maintaining our sense of social responsibility, and compassion for others. Helping others has many connotations that have profound impact on our daily lives individually and collectively, as societies, governments, individuals and families support each other in ways that concentrically help them overcome their short-term and long-term challenges.

Helping someone also requires the responsibility of carrying out their actions, or seeing their actions through to completion. Unfortunately, many of us fail in it miserably, as often an individual, or a group believe that all they have to do is to write a check and that money given out in the form of a donation will be used for that purpose.

But such help all too often serves one’s self-esteem, and without a genuine effort to help becomes almost a vicarious participation in the idea, or a concept of altruism rather than a genuine application of one’s desire to help based on one’s determination, compassion and a genuine desire to alieviate the present state of affairs exempli gratia poverty, sickness , illiteracy, vis-à-vis doing it because it is  politically corect, and/or because such action provides one with the economical, or personal advantages.

For centuries philosophers and psychologiests have argued about the essence of human character in the attempt to define it as good, or selfish, and especially in modern times with the advent of DNA and behavioral psychology with some scientists supporting a view that our behavior is primarily centered around our survival and the proliferation of our individual, genetic makeup. Such views would corraborate the hypothesis that human beahvior is essentially selfish and that all our behavior, including helping others is essentially a variation of self-help designed to sustain our psychological well-being.

To large extent these arguments are valid but only in respect to some altruistic behavior, as many of our behaviors cannot be classified under this category.

How do we explain, for example the behavior of New York City firemen at World Trade Center towers saving people’s lives when they knew very well they would not survive such ordeal themselves?

This behavior clearly cannot be categorized as selfish, egotistical behavior. Consequently, philsophers and scientists have a long way to go to understand and evaluate the true nature of our motives and what underlies our altruistic tendencies when faced with the boundless diversity of life all too often presenting us with paradoxical challenges to save or change other peoples lives.